• Empress Ci's reforms were unsuccessful, and living conditions worsened for the people of China. • Sun Yat-sen led a successful revolution to end the Qing dynasty but was unable to establish a stable government; General Yuan Shigai helped Sun in exchange for the presidency, which he ran as a dictatorship. • Yuan clashed with Sun’s Nationalist Party; after Yuan’s death, China lapsed into civil war as military warlords grappled for power. • Western culture modernized Chinese cities and created an export market; however, it destroyed local industry and exploited the Chinese as profits went to foreigners. • Western art and literature influenced Chinese culture in the cities.